A computer is a general-purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.
Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.
Mechanical analog computers started appearing in the first century and were later used in the medieval era for astronomical calculations. In World War II, mechanical analog computers were used for specialized military applications such as calculating torpedo aiming. During this time the first electronic digital computers were developed. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs).
Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are generally considered as “computers”. However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from electronic toys to industrial robots are the most numerou
Monday, 13 June 2016
Educational Technology
Educational technology is the effective use of technological tools in learning. As a concept, it concerns an array of tools, such as media, machines and networking hardware, as well as considering underlying theoretical perspectives for their effective application.
Educational technology is not restricted to high technology.Nonetheless, electronic educational technology, also called e-learning, has become an important part of society today, comprising an extensive array of digitization approaches, components and delivery methods. For example, m-learning emphasizes mobility, but is otherwise indistinguishable in principle from educational technology.
Educational technology includes numerous types of media that deliver text, audio, images, animation, and streaming video, and includes technology applications and processes such as audio or video tape, satellite TV, CD-ROM, and computer-based learning, as well as local intranet/extranet and web-based learning. Information and communication systems, whether free-standing or based on either local networks or the Internet in networked learning, underlie many e-learning processes.
Theoretical perspectives and scientific testing influence instructional design. The application of theories of human behavior to educational technology derives input from instructional theory, learning theory, educational psychology, media psychology and human performance technology.
Educational technology and e-learning can occur in or out of the classroom. It can be self-paced, asynchronous learning or may be instructor-led, synchronous learning. It is suited to distance learning and in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, which is termed blended learning. Educational technology is used by learners and educators in homes, schools (both K-12 and higher education), businesses, and other settings.
Educational technology is not restricted to high technology.Nonetheless, electronic educational technology, also called e-learning, has become an important part of society today, comprising an extensive array of digitization approaches, components and delivery methods. For example, m-learning emphasizes mobility, but is otherwise indistinguishable in principle from educational technology.
Educational technology includes numerous types of media that deliver text, audio, images, animation, and streaming video, and includes technology applications and processes such as audio or video tape, satellite TV, CD-ROM, and computer-based learning, as well as local intranet/extranet and web-based learning. Information and communication systems, whether free-standing or based on either local networks or the Internet in networked learning, underlie many e-learning processes.
Theoretical perspectives and scientific testing influence instructional design. The application of theories of human behavior to educational technology derives input from instructional theory, learning theory, educational psychology, media psychology and human performance technology.
Educational technology and e-learning can occur in or out of the classroom. It can be self-paced, asynchronous learning or may be instructor-led, synchronous learning. It is suited to distance learning and in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, which is termed blended learning. Educational technology is used by learners and educators in homes, schools (both K-12 and higher education), businesses, and other settings.
Science is a Systematic Enterprise
Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. In an older and closely related meaning, “science” also refers to this body of knowledge itself, of the type that can be rationally explained and reliably applied.
Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the natural sciences which study the material world, the social sciences which study people and societies, and the formal sciences like mathematics. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations.Disciplines which use science like engineering and medicine may also be considered to be applied sciences.
From classical antiquity through the 19th century, science as a type of knowledge was more closely linked to philosophy than it is now and, in fact, in the West the term “natural philosophy” encompassed fields of study that are today associated with science such as physics, astronomy, medicine, among many others.
In the 17th and 18th centuries scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of laws of nature. Over the course of the 19th century, the word “science” became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself, as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was in the 19th century that modern scientific disciplines such as physics, chemistry, and biology reached their modern shapes. The same time period also included the origin of the terms “scientist” and “scientific community,” the founding of scientific institutions, and increasing significance of the interactions with society and other aspects of culture.
Contemporary science is typically subdivided into the natural sciences which study the material world, the social sciences which study people and societies, and the formal sciences like mathematics. The formal sciences are often excluded as they do not depend on empirical observations.Disciplines which use science like engineering and medicine may also be considered to be applied sciences.
From classical antiquity through the 19th century, science as a type of knowledge was more closely linked to philosophy than it is now and, in fact, in the West the term “natural philosophy” encompassed fields of study that are today associated with science such as physics, astronomy, medicine, among many others.
In the 17th and 18th centuries scientists increasingly sought to formulate knowledge in terms of laws of nature. Over the course of the 19th century, the word “science” became increasingly associated with the scientific method itself, as a disciplined way to study the natural world. It was in the 19th century that modern scientific disciplines such as physics, chemistry, and biology reached their modern shapes. The same time period also included the origin of the terms “scientist” and “scientific community,” the founding of scientific institutions, and increasing significance of the interactions with society and other aspects of culture.
Electronics engineering, or Electronic Engineering
Electronics engineering, or electronic engineering, is an engineering discipline which utilizes non-linear and active electrical components (such as electron tubes, and semiconductor devices, especially transistors, diodes and integrated circuits) to design electronic circuits, devices and systems. The discipline typically also designs passive electrical components, usually based on printed circuit boards.
The term “electronic engineering” denotes a broad engineering field that covers subfields such as analog electronics, digital electronics, consumer electronics, embedded systems and power electronics. Electronics engineering deals with implementation of applications, principles and algorithms developed within many related fields, for example solid-state physics, radio engineering, telecommunications, control systems, signal processing, systems engineering, computer engineering, instrumentation engineering, electric power control, robotics, and many others.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is one of the most important and influential organizations for electronics engineers.
The term “electronic engineering” denotes a broad engineering field that covers subfields such as analog electronics, digital electronics, consumer electronics, embedded systems and power electronics. Electronics engineering deals with implementation of applications, principles and algorithms developed within many related fields, for example solid-state physics, radio engineering, telecommunications, control systems, signal processing, systems engineering, computer engineering, instrumentation engineering, electric power control, robotics, and many others.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) is one of the most important and influential organizations for electronics engineers.
Economics is the social science
Economics is the social science that describes the factors that determine the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services.
The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία from οἶκος (oikos, “house”) and νόμος (nomos, “custom” or “law”), hence “rules of the house (hold for good management)”.Political economy’ was the earlier name for the subject, but economists in the late 19th century suggested “economics” as a shorter term for “economic science” to establish itself as a separate discipline outside of political science and other social sciences.
Economics focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Consistent with this focus, primary textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy (meaning aggregated production, consumption, savings, and investment) and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources (labor, capital, and land), inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues (monetary, fiscal, and other policies).
Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics, describing “what is,” and normative economics, advocating “what ought to be”; between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioral economics; and between mainstream economics (more “orthodox” and dealing with the “rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus”) and heterodox economics (more “radical” and dealing with the “institutions-history-social structure nexus”).
Besides the traditional concern in production, distribution, and consumption in an economy, economic analysis may be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, and government. Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime,education,the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war,science,and the environment.Education, for example, requires time, effort, and expenses, plus the foregone income and experience, yet these losses can be weighted against future benefits education may bring to the agent or the economy. At the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.
The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek οἰκονομία from οἶκος (oikos, “house”) and νόμος (nomos, “custom” or “law”), hence “rules of the house (hold for good management)”.Political economy’ was the earlier name for the subject, but economists in the late 19th century suggested “economics” as a shorter term for “economic science” to establish itself as a separate discipline outside of political science and other social sciences.
Economics focuses on the behavior and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Consistent with this focus, primary textbooks often distinguish between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomics examines the behavior of basic elements in the economy, including individual agents and markets, their interactions, and the outcomes of interactions. Individual agents may include, for example, households, firms, buyers, and sellers. Macroeconomics analyzes the entire economy (meaning aggregated production, consumption, savings, and investment) and issues affecting it, including unemployment of resources (labor, capital, and land), inflation, economic growth, and the public policies that address these issues (monetary, fiscal, and other policies).
Other broad distinctions within economics include those between positive economics, describing “what is,” and normative economics, advocating “what ought to be”; between economic theory and applied economics; between rational and behavioral economics; and between mainstream economics (more “orthodox” and dealing with the “rationality-individualism-equilibrium nexus”) and heterodox economics (more “radical” and dealing with the “institutions-history-social structure nexus”).
Besides the traditional concern in production, distribution, and consumption in an economy, economic analysis may be applied throughout society, as in business, finance, health care, and government. Economic analyses may also be applied to such diverse subjects as crime,education,the family, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war,science,and the environment.Education, for example, requires time, effort, and expenses, plus the foregone income and experience, yet these losses can be weighted against future benefits education may bring to the agent or the economy. At the turn of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.
Wednesday, 16 March 2016
The Top 20 Education Next Articles of 2016
Which Education Next articles were most popular in 2016?
Our top article of 2013 was a randomized experiment designed to measure the effect of taking students on a field trip to an art museum. The study concluded, as the authors wrote in an op-ed in the New York Times, that “art makes you smart.”
What other topics were popular?
Five of the top 20 articles for 2013 looked at some aspect of technology in education: an article on flipped classrooms, a study of the effectiveness of online learning for college students, a profile of a charter schoolthat utilizes blended learning to individualize instruction, an article “checking the facts” of a study that evaluated K12 virtual schools, a look at educational apps aimed at preschoolers.
Another five articles of the top 20 articles focused on teachers or teacher training: a critique of ed schools, a look at the role played by substitute teachers, an article describing new organizations aimed at giving teachers a greater voice in the profession, a study of the academic qualifications of today’s teachers, an article on the cost of teacher benefits, and an article on changes at Teach for America.
Five more articles looked at some aspect of charter schooling: a look at how graduates of No Excuses charter schools are doing in college, an inside look at high-scoring BASIS charter schools, a look at the softer side of KIPP schools, an article about a blended learning charter school in L.A., and a study looking at how competition with charter schools affects district schools.
Assessment Through the Student's Eyes
Assessment Through the Student's Eyes
Rather than sorting students into winners and losers, assessment for learning can put all students on a winning streak.
Historically, a major role of assessment has been to detect and highlight differences in student learning in order to rank students according to their achievement. Such assessment experiences have produced winners and losers. Some students succeed early and build on winning streaks to learn more as they grow; others fail early and often, falling farther and farther behind.
As we all know, the mission of schools has changed. Today's schools are less focused on merely sorting students and more focused on helping allstudents succeed in meeting standards. This evolution in the mission of schools means that we can't let students who have not yet met standards fall into losing streaks, succumb to hopelessness, and stop trying.
Our evolving mission compels us to embrace a new vision of assessment that can tap the wellspring of confidence, motivation, and learning potential that resides within every student. First, we need to tune in to the emotional dynamics of the assessment experience from the point of view of students—both assessment winners and assessment losers. These two groups experience assessment practices in vastly different ways, as shown in “The Assessment Experience,” p. 24. To enable all students to experience the productive emotional dynamics of winning, we need to move from exclusive reliance on assessments that verify learning to the use of assessments that support learning—that is, assessments for learning.
How Much Do Teachers Hate Common Core?
As more and more governors and local politicians denounce Common Core initiatives, and more states officially back away from the standards, the debate over the place and effectiveness of Common Core heats up. There is a lot of talk about students, but what about teachers? After all, they are the people who are most accountable for any standards and testing systems that are put in place. They are also the ones who see firsthand how education policies impact students. So what do teachers say about Common Core and PARCC testing?
- 75 percent support Common Core, says a May 2013 American of Federation (AFT) poll that surveyed 800 teachers.
- 76 percent strongly, or somewhat, support Common Core based on an Education Next Survey from 2013.
- More than three-fourths support Common Core Standards “wholeheartedly” or with some minor reservations, according to a September 2013 National Education Association member survey.
- 73 percent of teachers that specializes in math, science, social studies and English language arts are “enthusiastic” about the implementation of Common Core standards in their classrooms, from a 2013 Primary Sources poll of 20,000 educators.
A higher amount of elementary teachers are optimistic about Common Core than their high school counterparts. A survey conducted by The Hechinger Report Scholastic and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation found that just 41 percent of high school teachers are positive about Common Core standards. A recent survey by the National Association of Elementary School Principals found that more than 80 percent of principals (out of 1,000 from 14 states) say that Common Core standards have the potential to increase student skill mastery, create meaningful assessments and improve areas like conceptual understanding.
These are just a few examples of studies of educators and administrators that relate directly to Common Core initiatives, but each one lists well over a majority who back the standards to some degree. This, despite the fact that many parents and legislators cite “unfairness” to teachers as a reason to dissolve the standards on a national level. In fact, this idea that all teachers somehow “hate” Common Core or are against the standards being taught is just not true. Yet this widely held public belief has led to even greater fervor when it comes to Common Core, PARCC testing and the related lessons in classrooms.
You may notice that many of these studies are a bit outdated. Even something from six months ago does not take teachers’ true feelings into account following teaching the standards, and facing assessments on them. Implementation aside, though, based on the criteria alone teachers appear to think that Common Core is a step in the right direction for the students in their classrooms.
Become an Online Educator: Career and Education Roadmap
Step 1: Earn a Teaching Degree
Online teaching at the K-12 level requires a bachelor's degree and appropriate state-issued teaching certification. At the postsecondary level, potential online educators must have earned their master or doctoral degrees. Most colleges and universities don't require applicants to have degrees in education. Rather, they prefer a degree and experience in the subject which the applicant intends to teach.
Step 2: Gain Certification or Licensure
According to the BLS, teachers are generally required to become certified or licensed in their state which may require passing an exam. Most education degree programs cover information required to become a licensed teacher. Online educators are also required to meet any teaching requirements that are applicable to classroom instruction.
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Step 3: Teach in a Classroom
Online teaching duties are similar to teaching duties in the classroom, except more computer and technology skills are needed in the virtual classroom. Proving teaching skills to potential employers with experience teaching in a brick and mortar classrooms may lend itself to an easier transition to teaching online. Moreover, it's usually easier to negotiate an online teaching position with a current employer than to find a new employer for a direct hire into an online education position.
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Step 4: Seek Additional Education Certificates
Elective certificate programs for aspiring educators can be a good way to learn about online instruction. It may also help to advance a career through providing more experience and professional networking. Many colleges and universities offer certificate programs with courses in e-learning, computer-based training, online tutorials, and electronic delivery. Many of these courses are available through the Web, so potential online educators are exposed to the online classroom experience while learning how to use programs designed for online learning, such as Blackboard. Certificate programs are available at both the graduate and undergraduate levels and vary in the number of courses required for completion.
Younger Students Increasingly Drawn to Online Learning, Study Finds
Prospective online students are skewing younger, tend to enroll in local institutions and put a program's cost and reputation at the top of their priority list, according to a recent survey.
Those and other findings are outlined in "Online College Students," a July report by Aslanian Market Research and the Learning House, a company that helps colleges and universities improve their online degree programs. The report, in its fourth year, surveyed about 1,500 graduate and undergraduate students enrolled, recently enrolled or about to be enrolled in online programs in spring 2015.
Among the most surprising findings in the report, authors say, is the shifting age of online students. While distance education students are often assumed to be older, the report found the popularity of online undergraduate programs is growing among those under 25.
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Thirty-four percent of undergraduate online students were under the age of 25 this spring, up from 25 percent in 2012, according to the report.
The percentage of online graduate students under 25 also grew, jumping from 13 percent in 2012 to 19 percent this year. Authors say these changes could be due to two factors: the economic pressure to work while going to school and increasing familiarity with online courses.
Students "have had online courses in their background because many high schools now require an online course," says study author Carol Aslanian, senior vice president of Aslanian Market Research. "If they have started college and are going back, many colleges have them. They are going to be groomed to appreciate it."
While online students can in theory enroll in any institution, most are drawn to local programs offered by schools they know. Half of online students live within 50 miles of their campus and 65 percent live within 100 miles, the report found.
That's not too surprising to Joel Hartman, vice provost for information technologies and resources at the University of Central Florida, who says most universities successfully recruit online students within the geographic areas they serve.
"We do very well," says Hartman, who also serves as chief information officer. "It's how we got to have 38 percent of our credit hours generated online."
When it comes to choosing an online program, the report found that prospective students put cost at the top of their priority list. Forty-five percent of respondents said they selected the most inexpensive institution out of their options, up from 30 percent the year before.
Two-thirds of students did not receive a scholarship when they enrolled in their online program.
[Find out how to decipher the true cost of your online degree.]
Cost "seems to be an increasing concern," says Dave Clinefelter, report author and chief academic officer at Learning House.
Reputation was the second most important decision-making factor after cost, although a significant percentage of students also considered whether the institution was recognized as high quality, the number of hours required for study each week and whether there were set class meeting times.
Once again, the report found women to be more highly represented in online programs than men. At the undergraduate level, 70 percent of students were women. Among graduate students, 72 percent of students were female.
Once again, the report found women to be more highly represented in online programs than men. At the undergraduate level, 70 percent of students were women. Among graduate students, 72 percent of students were female.
But more women are in higher education in general, Aslanian says. Women represented 56 percent of undergraduates in fall 2013 and 59 percent of graduate students, according to a May 2015 report by the National Center for Education Statistics.
The percentage of female online students could also be the result of the kind of careers women pursue, Aslanian says.
"A lot of the professions for which you need further education – health, social services, education – they are dominated by women," she says. "Many men may go into business and on their own. The women-oriented employment fields require more education."
While the report highlights various trends in student preferences, Clinefelter is quick to point out that online students are split on many issues, from how often they would like to engage with a faculty member to their tolerance for synchronous, or live, courses.
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